Research Findings

For the research summary, findings were integrated from both academic journal articles and research reports. Topics include elements of digital learning and distance education, evaluating the effectiveness of distance education programs, benefits and challenges of digital learning and distance education, and recommendations for various participants and stakeholders.

Elements of Digital Learning & Distance Education

Distance education includes learning experiences influenced by an educational organization (i.e., not private study) where the educator and learner are physically separated; educators and learners use digital tools and two-way communication; and there are opportunities for social interaction (Falowo, 2007). Communication and socialization can be asynchronous, synchronous, or a combination (Belzer et al., 2020; Porter, 2004; Zirkle, 2003).

Distance education programs often use a combination of digital and non-digital tools (Belzer et al., 2020; Johnston et al., 2015; Prins et al., 2011; Zirkle, 2003), but the most popular delivery method is the Internet (Benson et al., 2008).

Digital learning tools can be divided into categories of academic skill building (e.g., digital curriculum), communication (e.g., email, videoconferencing), productivity tools (e.g., presentation software, word processing software), and learning management systems (e.g., Canvas, Moodle). To be effective, digital tools must include “mobility, accessible onboarding, personal connections, screening-in, and rich media” (Sharma et al., 2019, p. 6).

Adult Learners in Digital Spaces

Sources for this literature review either used an andragogical lens or related adult learning theories to describe adult learners and their unique needs. Andragogy includes the following core adult learning principles (Knowles et al., 2020). Adult learners:

1. Need to know the why, what, and how of learning.
2. Are autonomous and self-directed.
3. Use prior experiences as mental models and resources for learning.
4. Have a readiness to learn and seek life-related learning experiences.
5. Are contextual and problem-centered (rather than theoretical).
6. Have an intrinsic motivation to learn.

Influenced by andragogical principles and based on the characteristics of adult learners, digital learning spaces should:

• build upon adult learners’ past experiences (Cercone, 2008; Schultz, 2012; Williams 2017);
• engage adult learners in active and experiential learning (Cercone, 2008; Johnston et al., 2015; Rapchak & Behary, 2013; Williams, 2017);
• provide adult learners some level of control of pace and timing (Rapchak & Behary, 2013); and
• provide immediate relevance between course content and their own personal or professional lives (Schultz, 2012).

Evaluating Distance Education Programs

Studies that evaluated the effectiveness of distance education found no significant differences between instructional delivery methods on learner outcomes (Askov et al., 2003; Benson et al., 2008; Dracopoulos & Pichette, 2011; Porter, 2004; Prins et al., 2011). Some studies even found that distance education (Murphy et al., 2017; Silver-Pacuilla, 2008) and blended learning (Rosen & Vanek, 2020) had a positive impact on learner outcomes. Rather than focusing on the delivery method, the critical component for impacting learner outcomes is the quality of learning design (Benson et al., 2008).

Quality distance education programs are effective, efficient, and equitable (Porter, 2004). Digital learning is effective when implemented in conjunction with systemic changes (Falowo, 2007) including curriculum reform, purposeful assessments, effective professional development, adequate infrastructure and technical support (Benson, 2007; EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Murphy et al., 2017), proper funding, and policy reform.

Benefits of Digital Learning & Distance Education

This section describes the benefits of digital learning and distance education for learners, educators, and program providers.

Benefits for Learners

• The most referenced benefits of distance education for adult learners included convenience and flexibility (Askov et al., 2003; Belzer et al., 2020; Benson, 2007; Benson et al., 2008; Digital US Coalition, 2020; EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Falowo, 2007; Finkelstein et al., 2013; Halpern & Tucker, 2015; Long et al., 2007; Mortrude, 2021; Olesen-Tracy, 2010; Prins et al., 2011; Rosen & Vanek, 2020; Sharma et al., 2019; Silver-Pacuilla, 2008). Digital tools and online learning environments make learning accessible regardless of location or time constraints. If learners have access to devices and an internet connection, they can learn anytime, anywhere. This often alleviates concerns with childcare, transportation, or other competing roles that adult learners must navigate.
• Digital learning helps learners to build confidence in themselves and develop a sense of independence (Housel & Oranjian; Long et al., 2007; Murphy et al., 2017; Prins et al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2019). This in turn facilitates self-directed learning, a key component of andragogy (Knowles et al., 2020).
• Digital learning also helps learners to build skills (Benson et al., 2008; Housel & Oranjian, 2021; Murphy et al., 2017; Turner et al., 2018), both in academic content areas and digital literacies.
• Online discussions “help build a community of learners who cooperatively share ideas, knowledge, and opinions” (Long et al., 2007 p. 3; Rapchak & Behary, 2013). Communicating in digital spaces provides opportunities for positive, quality social interaction with educators and peers, particularly for otherwise marginalized populations such as deaf and hard-of-hearing learners (Long et al., 2007), English learners (Blondy, 2007), and learners who might otherwise be reluctant to participate or share in a face-to-face setting (Williams, 2017).

Benefits for Educators

Digital learning tools provide educators with the ability to:

• differentiate instruction (Housel & Oranjian, 2021; Murphy et al., 2017; Prins et al., 2011; Rosen & Vanek, 2020);
• facilitate personalized learning (Prins et al., 2011);
• monitor learner progress (Housel & Oranjian, 2021; Murphy et al., 2017); and
• provide constructive feedback (Housel & Oranjian, 2021; Rosen & Vanek, 2020).

Benefits for Program Providers

Distance education can be cost-effective for program providers (Benson, 2007; Falowo, 2007) because they can offer additional programming options through digital tools, which in turn can increase enrollment and retention (Benson et al., 2008; Prins et al., 2011). Often, distance education provides access to marginalized populations and nontraditional learners who otherwise would not attend in-person classes.

Challenges of Digital Learning & Distance Education

This section describes the barriers to and challenges of digital learning and distance education for learners, educators, and program providers.

Challenges for Learners

• The most referenced challenge for learners in distance education was access and connectivity (Askov et al., 2003; Belzer et al., 2020; Digital US Coalition, 2020; Lotas, 2021; Miles, 2021; Mortrude, 2021; Prins et al., 2011; Rosen & Vanek, 2020; Silver-Pacuilla, 2008). Learners struggle to access proper hardware (devices) and software, and struggle with insufficient or no internet access at home. As many learners discovered with the sudden shift to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, high-speed internet access was a necessity to successful and sustained online learning (Miles, 2021).
• In addition to access and connectivity challenges, the literature frequently referenced learners’ insufficient digital literacy skills or prior experience with digital tools and/or distance education (Askov et al., 2003; Belzer et al., 2020; Benson, 2007; Falowo, 2007; Miles, 2021; Roumell, 2021; Smythe & Breshears, 2017; Williams, 2017).
• Even if learners had appropriate access, connectivity, and digital literacy skills, learners often struggled to navigate competing demands on their attention and time (Belzer et al., 2020; Cercone, 2008; Digital US Coalition, 2020; Williams, 2017; Zirkle, 2003). This is a challenge that is particularly a concern for adult learners, who navigate multiple roles and responsibilities in their daily lives.
• Learners reported insufficient educator-learner communication as a challenge in some distance learning experiences (Askov et al., 2003; Benson, 2007; Falowo, 2007; Prins et al., 2011; Zirkle, 2003). This manifested in issues with ambiguous instructions, confusing content, inadequate feedback, and insufficient advising and support services.
• Learners also reported social-emotional challenges in distance education, including a lack of discipline and focus (Benson, 2007; Prins et al., 2011), negative attitudes (Falowo, 2007; Murphy et al., 2017), and feelings of alienation and isolation (Falowo, 2007; Prins et al., 2011)

Challenges for Educators

• The most referenced challenge for educators in digital learning was a lack of effective and meaningful professional development related to digital learning and technology integration (Askov et al., 2003; Belzer et al., 2020; Falowo, 2007; Miles, 2021; Murphy et al., 2017; Rosen & Vanek, 2020; Roumell, 2021; Zirkle, 2003). To be successful in designing and implementing digital learning experiences, educators must develop technical knowledge.
• A related challenge that educators faced was a lack of institutional support (Falowo, 2007; Rosen & Vanek, 2020; Zirkle, 2003).
• Educators also reported challenges with time (Askov et al., 2003; Belzer et al., 2020; Digital US Coalition, 2020; Murphy et al., 2017; Prins et al., 2011; Zirkle, 2003). This included challenges with finding time for curriculum design, instruction, educator-learner communication, providing learner feedback, technical support, and more.
• Educators also shared learners as challenges of digital learning. Specifically, educators found it challenging when learners exhibited negative attitudes or lacked motivation (Askov et al., 2003; EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Prins et al., 2011; Williams, 2017). Other educators found it challenging to effectively communicate with learners (Askov et al., 2003; Mortrude, 2021; Prins et al., 2011).
• Inadequate administrator support can be a challenge for educators who are looking to implement digital learning within their programs (Askov et al., 2003; EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Falowo, 2007; Mortrude, 2021; Murphy et al., 2017)

Challenges for Program Providers

• Funding for adult education is generally limited. Program providers have multiple competing interests and policy constraints, particularly with digital learning and distance education programming (Benson et al., 2008; Belzer et al., 2020; Falowo, 2007; Rosen & Vanek, 2020; Roumell, 2021; Zirkle, 2003).
• The lack of high-quality, multi-layered professional development is also a concern for program providers (Falowo, 2007; Mortrude, 2021; Zirkle, 2003). If programs do not provide educators with the professional development they need, then distance education programs will be less effective.
• When educators hold negative attitudes toward digital learning and distance education programs, it makes effective and successful implementation more challenging (Benson et al., 2008; EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Falowo, 2007; Zirkle, 2003)
• Other reported challenges for program providers included curriculum constraints for hands-on trades (EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Zirkle, 2003), scheduling constraints (EdTech Center @ World Education, 2020; Zirkle, 2003), and a lack of technical support (Benson, 2007; Falowo, 2007; Zirkle, 2003).